REFERENCE / INFERENCE
Conditions d’achèvement
Reference is the act by which a speaker uses language to identify something (a person, object, place, event, etc.) for a hearer in a particular context. The crucial point is that reference is not only in the words; it is achieved through the speaker’s use of an expression in a situation.
1. Reference
Reference is the act by which a speaker uses language to identify something (a person, object, place, event, etc.) for a hearer in a particular context. The crucial point is that reference is not only in the words; it is achieved through the speaker’s use of an expression in a situation.
Examples
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“That is mine.”
Reference: “that” is identified by shared attention (pointing/looking). -
“I met a doctor yesterday.”
Reference: introduces an identifiable person (for the discourse). -
“The red car is blocking the gate.”
Reference: picks out a specific car presumed identifiable in context.
2. Inference
Inference is the hearer’s interpretive process of using context and background knowledge to connect an utterance to the speaker’s intended meaning, including identifying what a referring expression is meant to pick out.
Examples
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“I walked into a house. The kitchen was huge.”
Inference: kitchens are typically part of houses, so “the kitchen” is identified via world knowledge. -
“The exam is tomorrow. That is worrying.”
Inference: “that” is understood as the proposition/event “the exam is tomorrow.” -
“Can you drive? Good—the driver should come early.”
Inference: “the driver” is interpreted as the person who will do the driving (role inferred from context).
3. Referential vs attributive use
3.1 Referential use
Definition: The speaker uses a definite description to get the hearer to identify a particular individual the speaker has in mind, even if the description is not perfectly accurate.
Examples
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(Pointing at a man at a party) “The man drinking Juice is my supervisor.”
Even if he is actually drinking water, the speaker intends that man. -
(In a classroom, indicating one student) “The student in the back row has the answer.”
The aim is to identify that specific student.
3.2 Attributive use
Definition: The speaker uses a definite description to mean whoever fits the description, without having a specific individual in mind.
Examples
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“The person who stole my phone is very clever.”
The speaker does not know who it is; the statement targets whoever the thief is. -
“The winner of this competition will receive a scholarship.”
No specific person is intended now; it applies to whoever ends up winning.