Grammaire

Introduction

          The verb is the prominent part of speech. It is the most used words in all English statements. It is not possible to construct or find any English sentence without the presence of the verb including auxiliaries. Auxiliary verbs are among the grammatical elements that play important roles in the construction of grammatical units particularly clauses and sentences. They (auxiliaries) sometimes require the presence of lexical verbs to function within verbal groups; however, that does not deny their significance as grammatical sentence elements. Despite their syntactic dependency, auxiliaries enjoy high frequency as far as the use of sentence elements is concerned. So, it is worthy to note that, the auxiliaries although require lexical verbs, have semantic indispensability and sometimes some of them function as main verbs in sentences and convey effective meanings on their own as ordinary verbs.

1. Auxiliary Verbs

1. Definition

          Basically speaking, an auxiliary verb is used to add further functional, syntactic or grammatical content to the information expressed by another verb, the latter is considered to be the main or full verb following the auxiliary verb in the same clause in which they appear. Murthy (1998) explains auxiliary verbs as those verbs that are used to form negatives, questions and tenses on one hand, and used to express various moods and mental attitudes like hope, expectation, possibility and futurity (modal) on the other hand. Auxiliary verbs almost always appear together with a main verb, and though there are only few of them, they are among most frequently occurring verbs in English language. Auxiliary verbs are also called helping verbs. See the examples below:

·        I am writing the book.

·        He has done the work.

·        He will be there in less than one minute.

·        Would you help me to fulfill this homework?

·        Can you open the door?

·        Did you visit New York last holiday?

·        Do you like chocolate?

·        They must get there on time

·        They could find their way easily

Grammar Point In English, the extra meaning an auxiliary verb imparts alters the basic form of the main verb to have one or more of the following functions: passive, progressive, perfect, or modal. In English, every clause has a finite verb which consists of a full verb (a non-auxiliary verb) and optionally one or more auxiliary verbs, each of which is a separate word. Examples of finite verbs include write (no auxiliary verb), have spoken (one auxiliary verb), and have been spoken (two auxiliary verbs).

 

 

 

Christophersen and Sandved (1969) discuss the English auxiliary verbs through categorizing them into four sub-groups which are according to the form of the verb with which the auxiliary occurs.

§  The first group consists of the auxiliaries which are used with the base form of the verb, the form that is often called the ‘bare or plain infinitive’ the following are examples of such auxiliaries. Examples:

·        The boy can/could answer the question.

·        The boy will/would answer the question.

·        The boy may/might answer the question.

·        The boy must /had to answer the question.

§  The second group consists of auxiliaries which are used with the –ing form of the verb. examples:

·        I am visiting Paris.

·        She was visiting Paris.

·        He is visiting Paris.

§  The third group consists of the auxiliaries which are used with the past participle of the verb. examples:

·        He has visited Paris.

·        They had visited Paris.

·        He they have visited Paris.

§  The fourth and last group consists of the auxiliaries which are used with the infinitive preceded by the function word to. Examples:

·        They ought to go there.

·        They are to go there.

·        They have to go there.

·        They used to go there.

Important Reminder: The English auxiliary system involves a relatively small number of elements interacting in complex and intriguing ways. So an auxiliary verb is generally conceived as one with little semantic meaning of its own, which modifies the meaning of another verb with which it co-occurs.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

2. Primary and Secondary Auxiliaries

       Twaddell (1963) points out that any systematic discussion on auxiliary verbs should begin with distinguishing the two sets of the auxiliaries. He classifies the primary and the model auxiliaries by making the point that, the former group are concerned with subject-verb agreement and full past syntax while the latter group have no concern with concord and in some cases even the full past syntax. He also stresses that in verb constructions containing members of both sets, the model precedes the primary auxiliaries, not vice versa as seen in some of the examples above.

        There are many auxiliary verbs in English. The primary auxiliary verbs are to be and to have, and other major auxiliaries include shall, will, may and can. There are also numerous other lesser used verbs such as do, must ought to, used to and dare. Auxiliary verbs are formed by conjugation into the different forms: am, is, are, shall, should, be, being, been, was, were, will, would, has, have, having, had, do, does, did, can, could, may, might, must, ought (to), get, got(ten).

2. 2. The Primary Auxiliaries

 Eastwood (1998) explains that the English auxiliary verbs can be used in two different ways, either as ‘auxiliary verbs’ or ‘ordinary verbs’. He further justifies his claim by providing the following table:

 

Auxiliary Verbs	Ordinary Verbs
We are waiting for a bus.	We are at the bus stop.
I have thought about it.	I have a suggestion.
Does Tina need any help?	Tina does all the work.

 

2. The List of Auxiliary Verbs

           All English auxiliary verbs can be divided into two main categories. The first category is concerned with the ordinary or “main” auxiliary verbs which is composed of three verbs “to be, to have, and to do” while the second category is about the modal auxiliary verbs which includes the following list of verbs like can, could, may, might, must, ought to, should, will and would. In English sentences, a lot of important meanings are expressed by the verb phrase –for example questioning, negation, time, completion, continuation, repetition, willingness, possibility, and obligation and so on. So auxiliaries are important part of verbs.

         Adejare and Adejare (1996) discuss the primary auxiliaries with paying attention to their dual functions. They explain that the auxiliaries, BE and HAVE, have both finite and non-finite forms but the third member, the auxiliary DO, has only finite forms. These collectively generate a host of finite and non-finite forms. The auxiliary be generates five finite forms and three non-finite forms. In turn, the auxiliary have generates three finite forms and two non-finite forms. Finally, the auxiliary do generates only three finite forms. The table below shows the finite and non-finite forms.

	be	have	do
Finite Forms	am, is, are was, were	has, have, had	do, does, did
Non-Finite Forms	be, being, been	have, having

In order to demonstrate the dual membership of lexical and auxiliary subsets by the primary auxiliaries’ finite forms, another table is provided:

Finite Forms	lexical Verb	Auxiliary Verb
am	I am a student.	I am studying English.
is	John is good at figures.	He is training to be a banker.
are	They are friends.	They are planning a joint venture.
was	I was in Abuja in May.	It was raining every day.
were	We were young men then.	We were staying on the campus.
has	Ann has good looks.	She has taken care of herself.
have	I have some money.	I have gone to the bank today.
had	He had problems with tense.	They had been with him for long.
do	I do my work well always.	You do go on, don’t you?
does	John does well in exams.	She does not like loafing.
did	Stephan did a test.	He did not do it well, though.

 

2. 1. The Auxiliary Verb “To be”: Forms and Uses

Introduction

       “Be” or “to be” is an important verb that has a multitude of uses in English. It can be used as a main verb that stands alone in all its tenses including be, to be, been, am, are, is, was, were, wasn’t, was not aren’t, are not, weren’t and were not. When used as an auxiliary verb, be is a tense auxiliary and it always paired with another verb to create a complete verb phrase. It can be singular or plural, present or past. Negative sentences are formed by adding the word “not”. Examples:

·        Jerry is messy. Is = action verb

·        Although he is always complaining about his accidents, Jerry fails to pay attention. is = auxiliary verb

·        Jerry is going to be doing extra laundry for the rest of his life. to be = auxiliary verb

2. 1. Form

          The forms of the auxiliary “to be” refers to those are plenty changes and modifications that can occur to the English the auxiliary “to be” when it is used and arranged into different sentences in order to make “to be” correct, meaningful and functional I sentences. All the forms and changes that it can take are as follows:

§  Infinitive Form: to be

§  Base Form: be

§  Simple Present Form: am, is, are,

§  Simple Past Form: was, were

§  Present Participle Form: being

§  Past Participle Form: been

The tables below represent the simple present and pimple past forms of the auxiliary “to be” in accordance with the different personal pronouns. It should be noted that the forms of “to be” must agree with the personal pronouns in number, person and time.

Simple Present Forms of the Auxiliary “to be”
Affirmative	Negative	Interrogative	negative Interrogative
I am. You are. You are. He is. She is. It is. We are. You are. They are.	I am not. You are not. You are not. He is not. She is not. It is not. We are not. You are not. They are not.	Am I? Are you? Are you? Is he? Is she? Is it? Are we? Are you? Are they?	Am not I? Are not you? Are not you? Is not he? Is not she? Is not it? Are not we? Are not you? Are not they?

 

 

Simple Past Forms of the Auxiliary “to be”
Affirmative	Negative	Interrogative	negative Interrogative
I was. You were. You were. He was. She was. It was. We were. You were. They were.	I was not. You were not. You were not. He was not. She was not. It was not. We were not. You were not. They were not.	Was I? Were you? Were you? Was he? Was she? Was it? Were we? Were you? Were they?	Was not I? Were not you? Were not you? Was not he? Was not she? Was not it? Were not we? Were not you? Were not they?

 

2. 2. Uses of the Auxiliary Verb “to be”

§  The Formation of Continuous “Progressive” Tenses or Aspects

The auxiliary verb to be is used to form continuous active tenses like present continuous tense, past continuous tense, present perfect continuous tense, past perfect continuous tense, future continuous tense and future perfect continuous tense. So due to the auxiliary “to be” the speaker and the listener could recognize that the action is in progress, an idea of a plan or program in the near future, or ongoing as opposed to state. In such a case, progressive be is always followed by the gerund present participle form of the verb. So the auxiliary verb “be” is used with a “present participle” to form the progressive aspect. The auxiliary verb “be” varies according to the time and the subjects used in sentences. Based on the time, the auxiliary verb “be” varies in various continuous tenses. In relation to the subjects, it varies in accordance with the first singular and plural persons (I and we), the second singular or plural person (you), and the third singular and plural persons (he, she, it and they). See the examples below:

·        He is working at the university.

·        They will be satisfying by the good answer.

·        I am leaving for home tomorrow.

·        They have been learning French all the day.

·        She is learning English grammar with her best teacher.

·        She was carrying out her umbrella.

·        The pupils have been walking along the river.

 

§  The Formation of the Passive Voice of the Verb

In addition, it is used to construct all the passive voices in all tenses. “To be” is inserted before the main verb, which then the main appears in the past participle. So “to be” has role to distinguish the voice of the verb whether it is active or passive, and henceforth, it expresses clearly the relationship between the subject and the object of the verb. So the auxiliary verb be is used with a past participle to form the passive voice; Examples:

·        They were travelled over the country.

·        I was given a free ticket for the football match.

·        He was followed by the car.

·        He is being followed.

·        This slogan has been published by the whole nation everywhere.

·        The letters are being typed.

·        He was caught by the police.

 

§  “Be + infinitive” is used to convey order or instructions

This is rather impersonal way of giving instructions and is chiefly used with the third person. When used with you it often implies that the speaker is passing on instructions issued by someone else see the examples below:

·        No one is to leave this building without the permission of the police. “This construction indicates that no one must leave the building so it is an order”.

·        He is to stay here till the return. “He must stay”.

·        She is to find their way to the station. “They must find their way”.

·        Stay here, Tom. The speaker himself is ordering Tom to stay.

·        You are to stay here. The speaker may be merely conveying to Tom the wishes of another person        

§  “Be + infinitive” is also used to convey a plan in future

This construction is used in newspapers and in newspapers headlines the verb be is often omitted to save space since the latter is important in newspapers. See the examples below:

·        She is to be married next week.

·        Our examination is to start next week.

·        The expedition is to start in a due time.

·        The first semester exam is to take place one week later.

·        The president is to visit this town as soon as possible.

·        The prime minister is to make a statement tomorrow.

·        The director is to sign the contract next month.

                                             Or

·        She to marry next week.

·        Our examination to start next week.

·        The first semester exam to take place one week later.

·        The president to visit this town as soon as possible.

·        The prime minister to make a statement tomorrow.

·        The director to sign the contract next month. 

 

§  The construction “was /were + infinitive”

This construction can be used to express an idea of destiny. See the examples below:

·        He received a blow on the head. It did not worry him at the time but it was to be very troublesome later. “Through time it turned out to be or proved troublesome”

·        He made great efforts to succeed in the final exam. At the time of the exam he was to fell ill and could not go to pass the exam.

·        They said goodbye to each, little knowing that they were never to meet again.

§  The Construction “Be about + Infinitive”

This construction is used to express the immediate future. The word “just” can be added to this construction to make the immediate future event more immediate and precise. The “past form” is also possible in such a meaning as well as the expression “be on the point of + gerund”. See the examples below:

·        They are about to start. They are just going to start or they are on the point of starting

·        He is about to give a speech. Immediate future

·        They are just about to leave.

·        He was just about to dive when he saw the shark. Past form

Ø Be as an Ordinary Verb is normally used to denote the existence of, or to give information about, a person or thing. It should be noted that the idea of existence could be available by the construction “Be + Adjective”. See the examples below:

·        Tom is an engineer.

·        Malta is an island in the south of Europe.

·        The dog is in the near rainforest.

·        The roads were rough and narrow in this marginal city.

Ø Be as an Ordinary Verb is also used to express physical or mental conditions. See the examples below:

·        I am cold. Physical condition

·        They will be happy. Mental condition

·        Tom is being foolish. The speaker is showing this quality

·        You are being stupid. The subject is deliberately acting in this way.

Ø Be as an Ordinary Verb is again used for age, size, weight, and price. See the examples below:

·        How load are you? = I am ten years old.

·        What is your weight? = I am 65 kilos or I weigh 65 kilos

·        How much is this melon? = It is one dollar.

Summary

      “Be” belongs to a group of English verbs which have certain special grammatical (syntactic) properties that distinguish them from other verbs. This group consists mainly of verbs that are auxiliaries– verbs that add grammatical meaning to other verbs. “Be” may also be referred to by other names, such as "special verbs. The principal distinguishing properties of “Be” in this special group are as follows:

§  It can participate in what is called subject–auxiliary inversion, i.e. they can swap places with the subject of the clause, to form questions and for certain other purposes. For example, inversion of subject and verb is possible in the sentence they are nice (becoming Are they nice?); but it is not possible in They like to sing – it is not correct to say *Like they to sing?

§  They undergo negation by the addition of not after them. For example, one can say they are not nice, but not *they like not to sing.

§  I am doing the work. Continuous

§  He was sleeping at night. Continuous

§  The work was finished in time. passive

§  He was a teacher. Principal verb

Practice

Exercise 1

Direction: Put one of the forms of the auxiliary verb “to be” in the provided space in the following sentences with justification.

1.     My teacher……1…..now speaking about the topic of chemistry for first year engineering student at the Harvard university.

2.     In Edinburgh, all the visitors …2….claiming about the bad conditions of the streets and hotels in the middle of the week vacation.

3.     My uncle will …3…..travelling to fulfill his sacred pilgrimage the next Tuesday this time. He decides to take with him his beloved mother to share him the trip.

4.     My suitcases …4……missing during the presentation of the seminar today somewhere in the amphitheater.

5.     All my close friends and fellows have …5…….learning English language courses all the night before the exam.

6.     The visitors have ………6……. walking along the Nile River.

7.     The first terms exams will have ……7…..postponed till the next week during the bad weather conditions.

8.     The traffic circulation had…..8……witnessing so much disorder during the peak hours today.

9.     The deans of the university …….9……. troubling about the students' strikes the whole week last month.

10. They …..10….. learning French syntax with her best teacher all the night.

Exercise 2

Direction: Put one of the forms of the auxiliary verb “to be” in the provided space in the following sentences with justification.

1.     The new terms vocabulary ……1….copied into her notebook (by the student).

2.     Stephan was ….2…….. talked into buying a new car (by the salesman).

3.     The bubbling pot ….3…. seasoned (by the chef) with star anise.

4.     The onions ….4…..  chopped and the ginger is grated.

5.     All of the cherries on the tree …5….. +  ….. eaten by the crow.

6.     Several tourists would have …….  .6……… bitten by monkeys in Phuket.

7.     The suitcases …7…… being stolen by the thief yesterday.

8.     I will have ….8…….. told the truth recently.

9.     She was …..9………taught to be punctual (by her parents)

10. The scholar’s references..….10……diligently checked before the exam.