War of the Roses

1. Why "Roses"?

It was a label used by the novelist Sir Walter Scott (1771-1832 CE) to refer to the series of dynastic conflicts between the monarchy and the nobility of the kingdom of England. The ‘wars’ were a series of discontinuous, battles, executions, assassinations that led to a division in the political class of England into two groups following two of Edward III of England’s descendants (r. 1327-1377 CE): House of York led by  Richard, 3rd Duke of York, then his sons, Edward IV and Richard III. House of Lancaster led by King Henry VI and his Queen, Margaret of Anjou.

        Both groups used a badge in the shape of a rose only different in colour; a white rose for York and a red rose for Lancaster. The problem was complex since it went beyond both families to allies of either side who, of course, driven by benefits, changed allegiance throughout the decades of discontent. During the illness of King Henry VI, a fraction appeared between those who based around the Queen on one hand and the Duke of York on the other. The problems aggravated and a compromise was reached naming Richard, Duke of York as heir to the throne. The Queen refused this and the two factions started an armed uprising against each other. Consequently, Richard, 3rd Duke of York claimed the throne on the bases of the compromise made, and the Wars broke out.

.

2. Phases of the Wars

Phase One: The crown was seized from Henry VI by Edward IV after the Battle of Towton in 1461.

Phase Two: From (1469 to 1471) it marked the end of Lancastrian power as Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick, switched loyalties. Warwick was killed at the Battle of Barnet. Prince Edward was killed at Tewkesbury. King Henry VI died in captivity.

Phase Three: Henry Tudor defeated Richard III in a challenge at the Battle of Bosworth and became King Henry VII. The Wars of the Roses ended with the defeat of a Yorkist army at the Battle of Stoke Field in 1487.

3. Causes of the War

Although there were several reasons why the wars continued over four decades, the main causes for the initial outbreak were

1-    The tradition of killing kings and their Heirs that started with Henry IV of England (previously known as Henry Bolingbroke, r. 1399-1413 CE), the first Lancaster king, who seized the throne and assassinated his predecessor Richard II of England (r. 1377-1399 CE)

2-    The ineffectual rule of Henry VI of England (r. 1422-61 & 1470-71 CE) who ascended the throne as a newborn. Carwigh explained that this meant a “ruling council governed England and two regents, appointed by Henry V, ruled England and the Crown’s French territories respectively: Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester (l. 1390-1447 CE) and John, Duke of Bedford (l. 1389-1435 CE). Both were uncles of the infant King Henry, and a third important figure in this period was Henry’s great-uncle, Henry Beaufort, Bishop of Winchester”.  Such a situation of divided power was an opportunity for exploitation by any baron eager to promote his own position at the expense of any rivals. His government was controlled by his Uncles until he reached adulthood. As an adult, Henry VI ascertained to be a weak king and by appointing his favourites he caused senior nobles disapproval.

3-     The ambition of Richard, Duke, of York (b. 1411 CE) and then his son Edward (b. 1442 CE). Richard, the Duke of York was now the Protector of the Realm but he wanted more. The duke wanted to be nominated as Henry VI’s heir (at the time he had no children). Richard was the great-grandson of Edward III of England and the nephew of the Earl of March who himself had claimed he was the legitimate heir to Richard II of England (r. 1377-1399 CE). Richard was also seen by some as a representative of reform “a man who could sort out the corrupt government of Henry VI and restore England’s waning economic and military fortunes. Richard, too, had the support of such powerful families as the Nevilles of Middleham who sought allies in their own struggles with the Percy family and others”. (Carwigh 2020)

4-    Nobility’s race for wealth and land-owning switching allegiance for their own benefit. Historians named it “Bastards Feudalism” which consisted of landlords making their own armies and having numerous illegitimate sons to protect the lands and raid each other. Consequently, allegiances were thus transferred from the Crown to the local baron.

5-    The financial crisis of that period especially after the Black Death and the high taxes during the long wars with France.

6-     Disparities over relations with France during and after the Hundred Years War and the lands beyond the channel especially the loss of Normandy.

7-    The unproven crimes of Richard, Duke of Gloucester (b. 1452 CE), who was the younger brother of Edward IV. Richard was on his brother’s side in several battles had against the Lancastrians but he was ambitious for the Crown. Richard was not convinced that peace with France was the best policy and may have disagreed with Edward over his treatment of George, Duke of Clarence. Edward died unexpectedly in 1483 CE and Richard saw this as an opportunity. The king was succeeded by his son Edward (b. 1470 CE), but he was only 12 years old. Certainly, the barons hanged around the immature monarch looking for supremacy. According to different historians, young Edward V of England never made it to the coronation. Since Edward and his younger brother Richard (b. 1473 CE) were held captive in the Tower of London and were named ‘Princes in the Tower’ (Delinguer, 2013). Richard had been nominated by Edward IV as the Protector of the Realm, but when the two princes disappeared “it was widely thought that Richard had murdered them - a general accusation adopted by later Tudor historians and William Shakespeare (1564-1616 CE). In 1483 CE the Duke made himself king, Richard III” (Carwigh 2020). This terrible crime made many nobles change sides, as even pro-Yorkists were alarmed at the act. Under Henry Tudor’s lead, the Lancastrians saw their chance to regain the crown.

8-     The ambition of Henry Tudor (b. 1457 CE) to become king. Henry Tudor had strong allies: the Duke of Buckingham who was against Richard’s distribution of domains and the new king across the Channel, Charles VIII of France (r. 1483-1498 CE). Edward, Richard III’s son and heir died in 1484 CE, and the Lancastrians seized the opportunity.

4. The Main Battles and the End of the Wars

      Queen Margaret hated Richard and supported his rival candidate to be king. This candidate was the Earl of Somerset who was also a descendant of Edward III but through that king's son John of Gaunt, father of Henry IV of England (r. 1399-1413 CE), the first ruler of the House of Lancaster (Carwigh, 2020). Conflicts started between the two groups in a battle at St. Albans on 22 May 1455 CE, which Richard won. It was considered as the first of the Wars of the Roses.
       Richard the Duke of York died at the Battle of Wakefield on 30 December 1460 CE against Henry VI army, it seemed the end of the Wars of the Roses. However, Edward, the Duke of York's son, backed by a very powerful and rich Nobel named Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick (1428-71 CE), was promoted as a replacement to his father and to King Henry. When Edward won the bloody Battle of Towton in March 1461 CE, "the largest and longest battle in English history, this is indeed what transpired. Henry VI was deposed while Edward of York became Edward IV, the first Yorkist king" (Carwigh 2020).
     Edward IV's reign was briefly interrupted when his old ally the Earl of Warwick turned against him and, justifying his reputation as 'the kingmaker', reinstated Henry VI in 1470 CE. Edward won back his throne on the battlefield the next year and murdered Henry in the Tower of London. "The Earl of Warwick and Henry VI's only son were killed in battle, and Queen Margaret was imprisoned. It seemed the Yorkists had won the Wars of the Roses, and Edward consolidated his victory by purging any remaining powerful Lancastrians and anyone else who had been disloyal". The king assassinated his own brother, George, Duke of Clarence (l. 1449-1478 CE) accusing him of treason. The period of Edward's reign was mainly peaceful. He stopped the expensive campaigns in France which led to economic recovery.
     In August 1485 CE Henry Tudor landed with an army of French mercenaries at Milford Haven in South Wales and marched to fight Richard's army at Bosworth Field in Leicestershire on 22 August 1485 CE. Richard was killed in direct combat with Henry. The new king was crowned Henry VII of England (r. 1485-1509 CE) on 30 October 1485 CE. Henry Tudor became Henry VII of England (r. 1485-1509 CE) who then brought together the two conflicting houses by marrying Elizabeth of York, daughter of Edward IV in 1486 CE, thus creating the new house of Tudor. According to Mark Cartwright (2020) "The mark of his success is that Henry's son Henry VIII of England (r. 1509-1547 CE) became king without any wrangling and that the Tudors went on to provide the next three monarchs after him in a period of English history seen as its Golden Age."