grammatical categories

1. parts of speech

• ADVERBS

Adverbs are words that modify (describe or limit) verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs are adverbs.  Many young students have a hard time identifying adverbs. One of the easiest ways to help students remember the functions of adverbs is to explain that adverbs answer the questions How? Where? When? and To what extent?

Examples :

• Today we must complete the project. (Must complete the project when?)
• Mitch approached the intersection cautiously. (Approached how?)
• He seems especially competent. (How competent?)
• Did you see the schedule there? (Where?)
• The prosecutor did not question him further. (Questioned him to what extent?)

Some of the most commonly used adverbs follow:

carefully     now   really  evenly       only            too              greatly        rather         very

Many adverbs end in -ly. But remember that not all adverbs do. See the sentences above for some examples. The adverbs very, so, and too are also examples of commonly used adverbs that do not end in - ly. These adverbs are used to describe other adverbs, for example, very hard.

Many, but not all, words ending in ly are adverbs. Some exceptions are friendly, costly, and ugly, all of which are adjectives.

Adverbs can be used to compare verbs. Here’s how:

Some adverbs describe only one action.    Sheila ran fast.   The ride went smoothly.

Some adverbs compare two actions. These adverbs end in -er or use the word more.

Sheila ran faster than Fred. This ride went more smoothly than the last one.

Some adverbs are used when comparing three or more actions. These adverbs end in –est or use the word most.

Of all six runners, Sheila ran fastest.                This ride went most smoothly of the three we tried.

Here are some adverbs that do not end in - ly :

again                    almost        alone          already       also            always                 away                   

even            ever here              just    later never          not              now           

nowhere     often           perhaps      quite rather

seldom        so      sometimes somewhat   somewhere soon then   there           today         

too              very yesterday    yet

Adverbs modify verbs:

John ate quickly . ( How did he eat?)

I walk there . ( Where did I walk?)

Ashleigh will eat soon . ( When will Ashleigh eat?)

Adverbs modify adjectives:

Rex is very happy. ( Very modifies the adjective happy and answers the question, To what extent?)

The program was too unrealistic. ( Too modifies the adjective unrealistic and answers the question, To what extent?)

Adverbs modify other adverbs:

Warren walks too quickly. ( Too modifies the adverb quickly and answers the question, How quickly?)

He moved rather recently. ( Rather modifies the adverb recently and answers the question, How recently?)

Adverb or an adjective ?

When is a word an adjective, and when is it an adverb? Adjectives describe nouns and pronouns. However, adverbs do not. Adverbs describe verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. Adjectives describe only nouns or pronouns.

Helen has a yearly membership at the local health club. ( Yearly is an adjective since it modifies the noun membership and tells which membership.)

Helen contributes yearly. (Yearly is an adverb since it modifies the verb contributes and answers the question, When does Helen contribute ?)

Mike arrived late . ( Late is an adverb since it tells when Mike arrived.)

The late delivery cut down on sales in the supermarket. ( Late is an adjective because it tells which delivery.)

WRITING TIP Adverbs help readers visualize actions better. Select the precise adverb to help your reader see more clearly. Slowly might not be as accurate as gradually, leisurely, or unhurriedly. Use a dictionary or thesaurus for help.

1.1. the noun

The Noun

OBJECTIVES

■ To identify nouns in sentences                ■ To identify compound nouns in sentences

■ To identify common, proper, concrete, abstract, and collective nouns in sentences

a-      A noun is a word or word group that is used to name a person, a place, a thing, or an idea.

NOUNS

In elementary school you probably learned that a noun refers to a person, place, or thing. In addition, nouns name qualities, feelings, concepts, activities, and measures.

Persons:     Stephanie, Dr. Edelstein, teacher, accountant

Places:        Chicago, island, Italy, college

Things:      novel, surfboard, bicycle, horse

Qualities:   patience, honesty, initiative, enthusiasm

Feelings:     happiness, anger, confusion, sadness

Concepts:   knowledge, freedom, friendship, travel

Activities:   snowboarding, dancing, management, eating

Measures: day, week, inch, kilometer, million

Nouns are important words in our language. Sentences revolve around nouns because these words function both as subjects, and as objects of verbs. To determine whether a word is really a noun, try using it with the verb is or are. Notice that all the nouns listed here would make sense if used in this way: Stephanie is young, Chicago is in Illinois, horses are beautiful, dancing is fun, and so on.

Nouns can be common or proper; proper nouns require a capital letter.

—  Common: book, apple, crayon

—  Proper: Houston, Mr. Brown, the Bible

Nouns can be singular or plural.

—  Singular: bird, road, wish, army, crisis, Mrs. Brown

Making a noun plural usually involves adding an “s” or “es” to the singular noun, but there are many exceptions. 

—  Plural: birds, roads, wishes, armies, crises, the Browns. 

Add -s to the end of most nouns. For example: cat/cats, umbrella/umbrellas.

1-      Add -es to the end of a noun ending in ch, s, sh, x, or z. For example: church/churches, loss/losses.

2-      Drop the -y and add -ies to to a noun ending in a consonant followed by -y. For example: penny/pennies, candy/candies.

3-      Change f to v and add -es to many nouns ending in f or fe. For example: knife/knives, thief/thieves.

4-      Some nouns change in unpredictable ways when they become plural. For example, child/children, foot/feet.

5-      Some nouns do not change when they become plural. For example, deer/deer, sheep/sheep.

Some nouns are made up of two or more words put together. These are called compound nouns or compound words. Examples include:

thunderstorm            teardrop                    bumblebee

sunshine                     dishwasher                daydream

firefighter                  baseball                      sunset

b-     Compound Nouns

A compound noun is made up of two or more words sed together as a single noun.

—  The parts of a compound noun may be written as one word,as separate words,o r as a hyphenated word :

c-      Common Nouns and Proper Nouns

A common noun names any one of a group of persons, places, things, or ideas.

A common noun generally does not begin with a capital letter.

A proper noun names a particular person, place, thing, or idea.

A proper noun begins with a capital letter.

A proper noun names a particular person, place, thing, or idea and begins with a capital letter. A common noun names any one of a group of persons, places, things, or ideas. It is usually not capitalized.

Common Nouns         Proper Nouns

poem                           “The Raven,” I Am Joaquín

country                       Spain, Ivory Coast

athlete                                     Lance Armstrong, Venus Williams

ship                             Mayflower, U.S.S. Constitution

newspaper                  The New York Times, USA Today

river                            Rio de la Plata, Ohio River

street                           Market Street, University Avenue

day                              Friday, Independence Day

city                              Los Angeles, New Delhi, Houston

organization                National Forensic League, Girl Scouts of America

d-     Concrete Nouns and Abstract Nouns

A concrete noun names a person, place, or thing that can be perceived by one or more of the senses (sight, hearing, taste, touch, and smell).

An abstract noun names an idea, a feeling, a quality, or a characteristic.

Concrete  Nouns       hummingbird, telephone, teacher, popcorn, ocean, Golden Gate Bridge, Jesse Jackson

Abstract Nouns                    knowledge, patriotism, love, humor, self-confidence, beauty, competition, Zen Buddhism

e-      Collective Nouns

A collective noun is a word that names a group.

People                        Animals                      Things

audience                     brood                          batch

chorus                                     flock                           bundle

committee                   herd                            cluster

crew                            litter                            collection

faculty                        pack                            fleet

family                         pride                           set

1.2. pronouns

The Pronoun

OBJECTIVES

■ To revise sentences, replacing nouns with pronouns

■ To identify pronouns in sentences

■ To identify pronouns as personal, reflexive, or intensive

■ To identify pronouns as indefinite or demonstrative

■ To identify pronouns as relative or interrogative

PRONOUNS

Pronouns are words used in place of nouns. As noun substitutes, pronouns provide variety and efficiency. Compare these two versions of the same sentence:

Without pronouns: Scott gave the book to Kelli so that Kelli could use the book to study.

With pronouns: Scott gave the book to Kelli so that she could use it to study.

Pronouns may function as subjects of verbs (for example, I, we, they) or as objects of verbs (for example, me, us, them). They may act as connectors (for example, that, which, who), and they may show possession (for example, mine, ours, hers, theirs).

In each of the following examples, an arrow is drawn from a pronoun to the noun or nouns it stands for in the sentence.

EXAMPLES When Cindy Davis came to the bus stop, she was wearing a cast.

The trees and bushes are dry; they should be watered.

This stable is large. It has stalls for thirty horses.

The word or word group that a pronoun stands for is called its antecedent.

EXAMPLES My aunt sold her car. [Aunt is the antecedent of her.]

Anthony, call your mother. [Anthony is the antecedent of your.]

Personal Pronouns

Personal pronouns refer to people and things. They are divided into three categories called first person (referring to the person who is speaking: I went to the mall), second person (referring to the person spoken to: Joey, can you see the bus?), and third person (referring to anyone or anything else: Bob saw us do this assignment). The pronouns in the two example sentences above are personal pronouns.

The following list shows these three categories of personal pronouns:

(the person speaking)_ First person :                 I, my, mine, me (singular) ; we, our, ours, us (plural)

(the person spoken to) : Second person    you, your, yours you, your, yours

Third person :                                           he, his, him, she, her, they, their, theirs, them

(some other person or thing)                     hers, it, its

A personal pronoun refers to the one speaking (first person), the one spoken to (second person), or the one spoken about (third person). Personal pronouns have both singular and plural forms.

• EXAMPLE I am sure he told you about their plans.

Here are some examples of personal pronouns in action:

I went to the store with Pedro.                           I went to the store with him.

You and Baxter sing well together.           You and he sing well together.

Tina gave Kai a birthday present.             She gave him a birthday present.

My family gave Tina a gift, too.                We gave her a gift, too.

This is the Cranes’ house.                         This is their house.

In addition to personal pronouns, there are several other types of pronouns: reflexive pronouns, relative pronouns, interrogative pronouns, demonstrative pronouns, and indefinite pronouns.

• A reflexive pronoun is formed by adding - self or - selves to certain personal pronouns.

Examples of refl exive pronouns are myself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, themselves, yourself, and yourselves. The sentence, “I found it myself,” contains the personal pronoun I and the reflexive pronoun myself.

Hisself and theirselves are NOT real words.

• An interrogative pronoun is used to ask a question. These pronouns are which, who, whom, and whose.

• A demonstrative pronoun is used to point out a specifi c person or thing. These pronouns include this, that, these, and those. In the sentence, “Theresa, is this yours?” this is the demonstrative pronoun, and yours is the personal pronoun.

• An indefinite pronoun often does not refer to a specific or definite person or thing. It usually does not have a definite or specific antecedent as a personal pronoun does. In the sentence, “ Everybody will select another to help with everything, ” the three italicized words are all indefinite pronouns since they take the place of a noun and do not refer to a specific or definite person or thing.

-         These are all indefinite pronouns:

all      each more one another          either                   other                    any    everybody much                    several

most           anybody     everyone     neither        some anyone       everything nobody

somebody            anything     few             none           someone              both            many none

1.3. adverbs

• ADVERBS

Adverbs are words that modify (describe or limit) verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs are adverbs.  Many young students have a hard time identifying adverbs. One of the easiest ways to help students remember the functions of adverbs is to explain that adverbs answer the questions How? Where? When? and To what extent?

Examples :

• Today we must complete the project. (Must complete the project when?)
• Mitch approached the intersection cautiously. (Approached how?)
• He seems especially competent. (How competent?)
• Did you see the schedule there? (Where?)
• The prosecutor did not question him further. (Questioned him to what extent?)

Some of the most commonly used adverbs follow:

carefully     now   really  evenly       only            too              greatly        rather         very

Many adverbs end in -ly. But remember that not all adverbs do. See the sentences above for some examples. The adverbs very, so, and too are also examples of commonly used adverbs that do not end in - ly. These adverbs are used to describe other adverbs, for example, very hard.

Many, but not all, words ending in ly are adverbs. Some exceptions are friendly, costly, and ugly, all of which are adjectives.

Adverbs can be used to compare verbs. Here’s how:

Some adverbs describe only one action.    Sheila ran fast.   The ride went smoothly.

Some adverbs compare two actions. These adverbs end in -er or use the word more.

Sheila ran faster than Fred. This ride went more smoothly than the last one.

Some adverbs are used when comparing three or more actions. These adverbs end in –est or use the word most.

Of all six runners, Sheila ran fastest.                This ride went most smoothly of the three we tried.

Here are some adverbs that do not end in - ly :

again                    almost        alone          already       also            always                 away                   

even            ever here              just    later never          not              now           

nowhere     often           perhaps      quite rather

seldom        so      sometimes somewhat   somewhere soon then   there           today         

too              very yesterday    yet

Adverbs modify verbs:

John ate quickly . ( How did he eat?)

I walk there . ( Where did I walk?)

Ashleigh will eat soon . ( When will Ashleigh eat?)

Adverbs modify adjectives:

Rex is very happy. ( Very modifies the adjective happy and answers the question, To what extent?)

The program was too unrealistic. ( Too modifies the adjective unrealistic and answers the question, To what extent?)

Adverbs modify other adverbs:

Warren walks too quickly. ( Too modifies the adverb quickly and answers the question, How quickly?)

He moved rather recently. ( Rather modifies the adverb recently and answers the question, How recently?)

Adverb or an adjective ?

When is a word an adjective, and when is it an adverb? Adjectives describe nouns and pronouns. However, adverbs do not. Adverbs describe verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. Adjectives describe only nouns or pronouns.

Helen has a yearly membership at the local health club. ( Yearly is an adjective since it modifies the noun membership and tells which membership.)

Helen contributes yearly. (Yearly is an adverb since it modifies the verb contributes and answers the question, When does Helen contribute ?)

Mike arrived late . ( Late is an adverb since it tells when Mike arrived.)

The late delivery cut down on sales in the supermarket. ( Late is an adjective because it tells which delivery.)

WRITING TIP Adverbs help readers visualize actions better. Select the precise adverb to help your reader see more clearly. Slowly might not be as accurate as gradually, leisurely, or unhurriedly. Use a dictionary or thesaurus for help.

1.4. adjectives

ADJECTIVES

Words that describe nouns or pronouns are called adjectives. They often answer the questions What kind? How many? and Which one? The adjectives in the following sentences are italicized. Observe that the adjectives all answer questions about the nouns they describe.

• Small, independent businesses are becoming numerous. (What kinds of businesses?)
• We have six franchises in four states. (How many franchises? How many states?)
• That chain of health clubs started as a small operation. (Which chain? What kind of operation?)
• He is energetic and forceful, while she is personable and deliberate. (What pronouns do these adjectives describe?).
• Carrie read an interesting story. (What kind of story?)
• The recent article has that information. (Which article?)
• Kent owns those surfboards. ( Which surfboards?)
• Wendy paid fi fty dollars for the jacket. (How many dollars?)
• Much space was devoted to her artwork. (How much space?)

Adjectives usually precede nouns. They may, however, follow the words they describe, especially when used with linking verbs, as shown in the first and last preceding examples. Here is a brief list of words used as adjectives:

effective green sensitive excellent intelligent small expensive long successful

The words a, an, and the are the most frequently used adjectives. Although they are sometimes referred to as articles or noun markers, they are really adjectives, plain and simple. Use a before words that start with a consonant sound ( a joking man or a lucky lottery player) and an before words that start with a vowel sound ( an hour’s wait or an interesting story).

An adjective can come before or after the noun or pronoun it describes:

Older cards are found on the table. ( Which cards?)

Tall players and intelligent coaches were interviewed by the interested reporter. ( Which players? Which coaches? Which reporter?)

Tired and hungry , the campers reached the lodge. ( What kind of campers?)

The campers, tired and hungry , reached the lodge. ( What kind of campers?)

There are several types of adjectives:

A proper adjective is formed from a proper noun.

Italian bread Herculean strength Midas touch Canadian sunset

A compound adjective is a word composed of two or more words. Sometimes these words are hyphenated.

landmark decision black-and-blue mark hometown hero

Do not use a hyphen after an adverb ending in - ly.

newly painted mural sickly sweet odor recently purchased.

People sometimes confuse adjectives with nouns or with pronouns. Here are some points to remember.

QUESTION 1: When is a word a noun? When is a word an adjective?

The magazine article applauded the students’ efforts in the charity drive. (Magazine is an adjective that describes which article.)

The article about the students’ efforts in the charity drive was in the magazine. (Here magazine is a noun since it is the name of a thing and does not describe anything.)

Our Thanksgiving celebration was fun. (Thanksgiving is an adjective describing which ; celebration.)

We celebrated Thanksgiving . (Thanksgiving is the name of the holiday that was celebrated.)

QUESTION 2: When is a word a pronoun? When is a word an adjective?

These demonstrative pronouns can be used as adjectives: that, these, this, and those.

These interrogative pronouns can be used as adjectives: what and which.

These indefi nite pronouns can be used as adjectives: all, another, any, both, each, either, few, many, more, most, neither, other, several, and some.

This problem is difficult. ( This is an adjective since it answers the question, Which problem?)

This is diffi cult. (This is a pronoun since it takes the place of a noun and does not modify a noun or a pronoun.)

Some people are very funny. ( Some is an adjective since it answers the question, Which people?)

Some are funny. ( Some is a pronoun since it takes the place of a noun and does not modify a noun or a pronoun.)

WRITING TIP Adjectives tell more and help your reader know more about people, places, and things.

Select the precise word to describe people, places, and things. Which is the most accurate adjective to describe the student: smart, brilliant, insightful, clever, brainy, or bright? Decide.

Use a dictionary to find the subtle difference in adjectives that are closely related in meaning.

1.5. the verb

VERBS

Verbs express an action, an occurrence, or a state of being.

ESAMPLES/

• Jason built an excellent Web site. (Action)
• It has many links. (Occurrence)
• He is proud of it. (State of being)

Action verbs show the action of a sentence. Some action verbs are runs, studies, works, and fixes. Verbs that express a state of being generally link to the subject words that describe or rename it. Some linking verbs are am, is, are, was, were, be, being, and been. Other linking verbs express the senses: feels, appears, tastes, sounds, seems, looks.

it is important that you be able to recognize verbs so that you can determine whether sentences are complete. All sentences have at least one verb; many sentences will have more than one verb. Verbs may appear singly or in phrases.

Stacy submitted her application to become a management trainee. (Action verb)

Her résumé is just one page long. (Linking verb)

She has been training to become a manager. (Verb phrase)

Stacy feels bad that she will be leaving her current colleagues. (Linking verb and verb phrase)

VERB TENSES.

The tense of a verb tells the reader or listener when the action or state of being takes place.

An action verb is a verb that shows physical or mental action. You can usually find the action verb in a sentence by asking “What did the person, place, or thing do?”

• smile          taste grow run   read like    call    paint          fly

A linking verb is a verb that shows a state of being. It does not show action. Linking verbs link the subject to other words in a sentence. Here are some examples:

• Leonard is my best friend.                      Pandas are endangered.
• I am happy.                                             The sky seems dark.

The present tense expresses an action that takes place in the present. For example:

The store is open. I write poems. The sun shines on us.

The past tense expresses an action that has already taken place. Most verbs are regular: To form the past tense -d or -ed is added. For example:

Hannah skipped down the block.           We danced together.

Other verbs are irregular: To form the past tense, their spelling changes in unpredictable ways.

Lily wore a blue hat.                      Patrick was late for school.            We won the game last Saturday.

The future tense expresses an action that will take place in the future. It has not happened yet. For example:

Chris will watch the movie.            We will walk home together. It will rain tomorrow.

TYPES OF VERBS

There are several types of verbs to be studied: the action verb, the linking verb, and the helping verb.

• Action Verbs

An action verb tells what action (often a physical action) a subject is performing, has performed, or will perform.

My father delivers packages to department stores each day.

Louie bowled a perfect game last night.

Suzanne skated across the rink in Central Park.

Turn at the next corner, Noel.

Oscar will help Petra with the project.

• Linking Verbs

A linking verb connects (or links) a subject to a noun or an adjective in the predicate. The most common linking verbs are the forms of the verb “to be” ( is, are, was, were, been, being, am ) and appear , become, feel, grow, look, remain, seem, smell, sound, stay, taste, and turn.

My sister is a doctor. (The linking verb, is, connects the subject, sister, with the predicate nominative, doctor.)

My sister is studying to become a doctor. (In this sentence the word is is a helping verb for the main verb, studying. Is does not function as a linking verb.)

He appeared tired. (The linking verb, appeared, links the subject, He, with the predicate adjective, tired. )

He appeared at the game. (In this sentence the verb, appeared, is an action verb, not a linking verb.)

In the following group of sentences, the odd-numbered sentences exemplify the linking verb and the even-numbered sentences show the same verb used as either an action verb or a helping verb. Discuss why each verb functions as it does.

1. Reggie looked confused.

2. Reggie looked for his missing wallet.

3. Tammy grew tired during the long concert.

4. Tammy grew tomatoes in her garden this year.

5. I feel confused in math class.

6. I feel the penny at the bottom of this pool.

• Helping Verbs

A helping verb assists the main verb in a sentence. There can be more than one helping verb in each sentence. In a questioning (interrogative) sentence, the helping verb is usually separated from the main verb.

The common helping verbs are am, is, are, was, were, be, been, being, has, had, have, do, does, did, may, might, must, can, could, shall, should, will, and would.

The italicized word in each sentence below is the helping verb. The underlined word is the main verb.

The members are going to the city tomorrow evening.

Are the members going to the city tomorrow evening?

That joke has been heard around the office.

Has that joke been heard around the office?

Her brothers are leaving for the train.

Are her brothers leaving for the train?

1.6. conjunctions

A conjunction connects words or group of words . There are three types of conjunctions: coordinating conjunctions , correlative conjunctions , and subordinating conjunctions.

A coordinating conjunction is a single connecting word. These seven words are for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so.

The boys and girls worked at the fair. ( And joins the names boys and girls. )

Paula or Jeannine can go with you tonight. ( Or joins the names Paula and Jeannine. )

I would like to help you, but I will be busy tonight. ( But joins two sentences or complete ideas.)

We must leave early so we can get to the wedding reception on time. ( So joins two sentences or two complete ideas.)

Remember the made-up word FANBOYS when you memorize the coordinating conjunctions.

Each letter in this word ( For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So) stands for a coordinating conjunction.

Correlative conjunctions are pairs of connecting words. These fi ve pairs of words are both/and, either/or, neither/nor, not only/but also, and whether/or.

Both Henry and Henrietta are leaving the dance now. (The correlative conjunctions join two names.)

Not only will they leave now, but they will also not be here to help clean up. (The correlative conjunctions join two sentences or complete ideas.)

Either go with them or stay here and help. (The correlative conjunctions illustrate a choice.)

He went neither to the stadium nor to the concert hall during this vacation. (The correlative conjunctions join two prepositional phrases.)

WRITING TIP Using conjunctions adds sophistication to sentences. Rather than using two very simple sentences such as, “The monkey climbed the tree,” and “The monkey threw down a banana,” combine them by using the conjunction and: “The monkey climbed the tree and threw down a banana” is a more sophisticated sentence. Make good use of the conjunctions for combining ideas.

1.7A Appropriately Chosen! (Conjunctions)

Circle the conjunction or pair of conjunctions in each sentence:

1. Lyle chose both steak and salad for his dinner.

2. I chose neither steak nor salad for my dinner.

3. Either you or he can drive Dad to the train station tomorrow morning.

4. The panda wanted to eat, for he was hungry.

5. Peanut butter and jelly is Rex’s favorite sandwich.

6. Not only the girls but also the boys will be invited to the assembly.

7. Sara did not know whether to swing at the ball or take the pitch.

8. Mark would like to go, but he cannot.

9. Rich likes the food at this restaurant, yet he seldom eats here.

10. Run with him or her.

Use these coordinating and correlative conjunctions in your own sentences:

11. Use neither . . . nor:

12. Use but:

13. Use for:

14. Use or:

15. Use either . . . or:

1.7. prepositions

1.6 Prepositions

A common preposition is a word that shows the relationship between a noun or a pronoun and another word in the sentence.

The man swam under the bridge. ( Under connects the idea of swam and bridge .)

She walked down the aisle. ( Down connects walked and aisle .)

Julie walked around the campus and toward town. ( Around connects walked and campus. Toward connects walked and town. )

Here are the most commonly used prepositions:

aboard about above across after against along among

around as at before behind below beneath beside

besides between beyond but by concerning despite down

during except for from in inside into like

near of off on onto opposite out outside

over past since through throughout till to toward

under underneath until up upon with within without

But is a preposition only when it can be replaced by the word except. So in the sentence, “All but Teddy went inside,” but is a preposition since it connects All and Teddy and can be replaced by the word except.

A way to get to know these fi fty-six prepositions is to remember this sentence: The plane, Prepi I, flew………… the clouds.

Any single word that can logically be placed into this space is a preposition, so the only words that you would still have to memorize are those that do not logically fit into this space. Compose the list of these words, memorize the Prepi I sentence, and you will know your prepositions!

Another type of preposition is the compound preposition. It does the same as a common preposition but is composed of two or more words. Here are the most common compound prepositions:

according to               ahead of                     apart from                   as of                aside from       because of      

by means of                in addition to              in back of                   in front of       in place of       in spite of

instead of                   in view of                   next to                                    on account of             out of prior to

Adverb or preposition? The difference between a preposition and an adverb is that an adverb answers the questions, Where? When? How? To what extent? by itself. Both common and compound prepositions need more than just themselves to answer the same questions:

He fell down . ( Down is an adverb because it takes only one word to tell where he fell.)

He fell down the stairs. ( Down is a preposition because it takes more than a single word to tell where he fell.)

Trey walked aboard . ( Aboard is an adverb because it takes only one word needed to tell where Trey walked.)

Trey walked aboard the ship. ( Aboard is a preposition because it takes more than one word to tell where Trey walked.)

WRITING TIP Know when a word is a preposition and when it is an adverb. In the sentence “The captain walked aboard,” aboard is an adverb because it does not start a prepositional phrase. In the sentence “The captain walked aboard the ship,” aboard is a preposition that begins the prepositional phrase, aboard the ship. Look for the prepositional phrase to check that the word is a preposition and not an adverb.

1.6A Finding the Four Words (Prepositions)

Underline the preposition in each of the following sentences. Then write the fi rst letter of the preposition on the line before the sentence. Transfer the fi fteen consecutive letters to the lines below the last numbered sentence to form four words.

1. The teammates walked beyond the bleachers.

2. The track team ran into the hills.

3. The temperature is several degrees below zero.

4. Call me around four o’clock.

5. It is a matter concerning bad behavior.

6. The parents joined in the conversation.

7. Ronnie fell asleep during the professor’s lecture.

8. We found the sleeping cat underneath the blanket.

9. The couple walked near the bridge.

10. The children slid down the slide yesterday.

11. We lost contact over time.

12. This letter is addressed to your sister.

13. The strong man swam across the wide lake.

14. This group is under great suspicion.

15. I pointed toward the tall building.

The four words are , , , and               .

1.8. interjections

INTERJECTIONS

• INTERJECTIONS ARE Words expressing strong feelings or emotion. If they are standing alone, tey are followed by exclamation marks. When woven into a sentence, they are usually followed by commas. An interjection usually comes at the beginning of the sentence.

Wow! Did you see what she wrote in her e-mail message?

Oops! I forgot to send the attachment.

• Do not overuse interjections. Include one when you want to make your point. If you use too many interjections, your writing loses its power and effectiveness.
• Here are some common interjections:

Aw Bravo Darn Dear me

Eek Eh Gee Golly

Goodness gracious Gosh Hallelujah Hey

Horrors Hurrah Hurray Mmm

Oh Oh no Oops Ouch

Phew Rats Really Ugh

Well Whoa Whoops Wow

Yea Yeh Yes Yippee

WRITING TIP Interjections express emotion. Do not overuse this part of speech, which generally is found in dialogues and face-to-face conversations.