The Rise of American National Literature

1. 1. Features of National American Literature

      In this historical era, three dominant perspectives shaped debates about American literature identity and development. The first view advocated for the creation of a new, independent American literature that would express the distinct character of the emerging nation. Supporters of this idea believed that American writers should break away from European influences and produce works that reflected the unique political, social, and cultural experiences of the United States.
             The second perspective suggested that American literature was still too young to declare its independence from the established British literary tradition. According to this view, the literary culture of the United States lacked the maturity, sophistication, and historical depth of Britain’s canon. As a result, early American writers often imitated British styles, genres, and standards of literary excellence, seeking validation within a familiar cultural framework while slowly developing their own traditions.
       A third viewpoint held that great literature, regardless of its national origins, should be universal in its themes and artistic achievement. Advocates of this belief argued that the primary goal of American writers should not necessarily be the construction of a distinctly national literature, but rather the exploration of universal human experiences that transcend political and cultural boundaries. In this framework, American authors were encouraged to engage with global literary traditions and produce works that represent broader human truths, contributing meaningfully to the international literary conversation. (High 27-28)
      According to Peter High, American literature, from its early stages, combined qualities from both  Old and New Worlds. As an independent nation began to emerge, American writers attempted to define a distinctive cultural and literary identity while inevitably drawing upon European influences.
     During the colonial period, there were no major novels produced in America before independence. This absence can be attributed to the Puritan suspicion of novels, which they viewed as a source of dangerous and immoral ideas. However, in England, the novel as a literary form was flourishing. Notable examples include John Bunyan’s The Pilgrim’s Progress (1678), Daniel Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe (1719) and Samuel Richardson’s Clarissa (1748). These English works influenced American novelists as they began to develop their own national literature in the post-independence period.
     After American independence, the nation’s novelists began to develop a distinct literary voice characterized by simple and direct language. In this regard, American novelists focused on a realistic portrayal of life in the new republic, emphasizing themes and concerns that were immediately relevant to their readers. Many novels of this period carried a strong element of moral advice. Alongside this moralism, religious sentiment was a common feature, reflecting the continuing influence of religious thought on American culture and society.
      American novelists were generally careful and cautious in their writing, aware that novels were still viewed by many as morally suspect. Indeed, the first American novel, The Power of Sympathy (1789) by William Hill Brown, was intended to offer a moral lesson but was ironically regarded by some as morally dangerous because of its treatment of sensitive topics like seduction and scandal. Another significant early work was Modern Chivalry (1792) by Hugh Henry Brackenridge. It is a satirical novel that depicted the many adventures of its characters across the American frontier. Brackenridge used humor to criticize America’s "backwoods" culture, while also critiquing religious groups, Native Americans, and the institution of slavery (High 28). 
     In Gilbert Imlay’s novel The Emigrants, he portrays American culture as more natural and simple compared to the old, rigid traditions of Europe. The novel shows that family members who are able to adapt to American society find happiness and success, while those who cling to the old English values face failure.
      An example of horror novels was written by Charles Brockden Brown. In Wieland, he creates a psychological Gothic novel centered around fear and delusion. His novel Ormond presents the character of an evil seducer. Arthur Mervyn follows a gothic style, but by the end of the story, it shifts toward a moralistic message. In Edgar Huntly, Brown delves into themes of murder, sleepwalking, and insanity.
     Royal Tyler’s The Algerine Captive uses the story of an American captured by pirates as a vehicle to criticize the American government’s support of slavery. Through the experiences of the protagonist, Tyler highlights the contradictions between the nation's ideals of freedom and the practice of slavery.
     These early novels often featured awkward structures and dialogue, as authors struggled with the newness of the form and the challenges of adapting European literary traditions to the American experience. Despite these imperfections, the novels were important pillars in American literature, blending moral seriousness with humor and criticism (High 28). 

2. Prominent Authors and Works

·         Knickerbocker Era 1810-1840

      In the early 19th century, New York was the center of American writing. The writers are known as “Knickerbockers”. The name comes from a History of New York, by Diedrich Knickerbocker by Irving Washington. It is a humorous book about the local history of the city. He laughs at the Puritans and Dutch governors. He invented many events and legends. His aim is to give New York a special local color.

 
·         Irving Washington

      Born in 1783 in New York City, Washington Irving came from a Scottish-English family and according to Edwin W. Bowen, ‘’Washington Irving [was] properly accorded the first place among the pioneers in American literature’’. He moved to England in 1815; however, after the company that he worked became bankrupt, he turned his attention into writing. He was a great observer of European literature. He borrowed the origin of Rip Van Winkle from a German folk tale titled "Karl Katz." and published it in 1819. The reason for borrowing was the lack of specific American themes and issues at the time. However, Washington Irving strewed American features into Rip Van Winkle. He became the first person to use the short story form of fiction and gained international respect for American Literature, noted for his contributions to a burgeoning national literature. According to Fiedler,  Rip “presides over the birth of the American imagination” (6). In addition, he is “[t]he guardian angel  and symbol of the mythic American” (Leary 22-23)
     The Sketch Book contains two small masterpieces that initiated the great tradition of the American short story, “Rip Van Winkle” and “The Legend of Sleepy Hollow.” Four other sketches are also set in America, but most of the other pieces are descriptive and thoughtful essays on England, where Irving was still living.  It contains 32 stories. The majority are on European subjects, mostly English. For Washington Irving, “We are young people and must take our examples and models from the existing nations of Europe” (High 31)
      Both “Rip Van Winkle” and “Sleepy Hollow” have origins in German folklore, but Irving fills them with the local color of New York’s Hudson River Valley.  Irving admits as much in a “Note” to the first tale. Both also owe a debt, in terms of stylistic influence, to Sir Walter Scott. Nevertheless, both exploit their specifically American settings and create American myths: they explore the social and cultural transformations occurring in America.
     In his best work, Irving was a creator of significant American myths: narratives that gave dramatic substance to the radical changes of the time, and the nervousness and nostalgia those changes often engendered. Perhaps he was so effective in fashioning those myths because the nervousness about the new America, and nostalgia for the old and, beyond that, for Europe- were something that he himself felt intensely. He was writing himself, and the feelings he typified, into legend.
    His literary works include Bracebridge Hall, Tales of a Traveler, The Alhambra, The Life and Voyages of Christopher Columbus and The Conquest of Granada. Irving was the first to earn his living through literature.
     Another Knickerbocker writer, James Kirke Paulding, contributed to early American literature with works like The Dutchman’s Fireside, an amusing satire set in colonial America. His writing reflects anti-Indigenous views and support for slavery. Like other Knickerbocker writers, Paulding did not attempt to represent the entire American continent; instead, his focus remained firmly on New York and its regional culture, reflecting the localized perspective common among this literary group. (High 33)

·         James Fenimore Cooper

     In his works, he spoke for all of America. He celebrated the best qualities of the American personality while also offering harsh criticism of its injustices and shortcomings.
     In Europe, he gained recognition as “The American Walter Scott” for his contributions to historical fiction. His characters were not just regional figures like “New Yorkers,” but true representations of the broader American experience.
     He is credited as the founding father of the American historical novel, using the genre to explore the deep conflicts and changes taking place in American society during a transformative era. In addition, he helped develop and popularize multiple literary forms, including the sea novel, the novel of manners, political satire and allegory, and the dynastic novel, which examined American principles and social practices across generations.
    His major works are:
- Precaution (1820) was in fact written after his wife challenged his claim that he could write a better book than the English novel he was reading to her. A conventional novel of manners set in genteel English society.
- The Spy: A Tale of the Neutral Ground (1821) a man who moves back and forth between American and British Camps during the Revolution.
- The Pioneers: the first novel of Cooper’s “Leatherstocking” series.
The main character is Natty Bumppo, known here as Leatherstocking. He is a typical American pioneer figure. His sympathy for all people, including the Indians is unusual. (Chingachgook, the friend and comrade of Natty)
-The Last of the Mohicans (1826) presents Bumppo, here called Hawkeye, in his maturity and is set in 1757 during the Seven Years’ War between the French and the British.
-In The Prairie (1827), Bumppo, known simply as the trapper, has joined the westward movement; he is now in his eighties and, at the end of the novel, he dies.
-The Pathfinder Here, Bumppo is tempted to think of marriage. But, when he learns that the woman in question loves another, he nobly accepts that he cannot have her. Like the many Western heroes for which he was later to serve as prototype, he recognizes that, as he puts it, it is not according to his “gifts” to love and to marry.
-The Deerslayer: Natty in his twenties.
     James Fenimore Cooper describes the triumph of time and civilization over the wilderness, portraying the gradual transformation of the untamed American landscape into a more settled and structured society. This theme is central in many works, reflecting the nation's broader expansion and development.
      Cooper excels in writing scenes filled with violent action, terror, and mystery, bringing intensity and drama to his narratives. These elements contribute to the lasting appeal of his adventure and historical novels. However, his depictions of women characters are often considered weak. They tend to lack depth and complexity compared to his male protagonists (High 37-38).

·         The Poet William Cullen Bryant
 
      He dislikes neoclassical style, which emphasized rigid forms, imitation of classical models, and restrained emotion. Instead, he aligned himself with the ideals of the Romantic poets of Europe, particularly Wordsworth, who championed a more natural, emotional approach to poetry. He believed that new poetry should not merely imitate the forms of ancient classics, but should instead strive to connect with the reader’s emotions and offer a deeper understanding of the world. For him, “the great spring of poetry is emotion”. In this regard, true poetic expression arises from genuine feeling rather than strict adherence to traditional form (High 39).